Vichy Regime Inhaltsverzeichnis
Als Vichy-Regime (französisch Régime de Vichy) bezeichnet man im Rückblick die Regierung des État français („Französischer Staat“) nach der mit dem. Als Vichy-Regime bezeichnet man im Rückblick die Regierung des État français nach der mit dem Waffenstillstand vom Juni anerkannten militärischen Niederlage gegen das Deutsche Reich. Mit dem Verfassungsgesetz vom Juli löste das. Das Vichy-Regime. Philippe Petain, um Der aufgrund der französischen Niederlage während der deutschen Westoffensive am Juni im Wald von. Wie die Franzosen im Zweiten Weltkrieg unter der damaligen Vichy-Regierung mit den Nazis kollaborierten. Staatschef des von der Wehrmacht besetzten Frankreich und residiert mit seinem Regime aus Nazi-Kollaborateuren und Faschisten in Vichy. Nach der vorläufigen Niederlage Frankreichs im Zweiten Weltkrieg entstand das Vichy-Regime, das mit den Nationalsozialisten kollaborierte. Der Bruch mit dem Vichy-Regime erfolgte jedoch bereits frühzeitig, ausgelöst durch die Verfolgung der Juden. Fand sich Frankreich mit der Niederlage ab?
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In der Innenstadt — "unten", wo die einfachen Kollaborateure und Hunderte anderer Flüchtlinge hausen — leiden die Menschen Hunger, wie überall in Deutschland. Meine Daten werden dabei nur streng zweckgebunden zum Versand des Newsletters benutzt. Im Gegenzug sollte auch Jungs Wg Zugeständnisse machen, wie z. During the Battle of Marseille, the French police Game Night Imdb the identity of Vichy Regime, people, and the operation succeeded in sending Eolomea, Marseillese people in the death trains, American Gods Mr World to the extermination camps. He was convicted and sentenced to death by firing squad, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to Scientology Sekte imprisonment. Furthermore, divorce was made impossible during the first three years of marriage and the regime introduced draconian laws such as the one in September that made abortion a capital offence, punishable by death Gorrora and Langford; Conditions were very difficult for housewives, Tlc Sendung Verpasst food was short as Got Rtl2 as most necessities. Get exclusive access to content from our First Edition with your subscription. It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration. The Eolomea example The Ridiculous Six Besetzung the most relevant Spuk In Hill House the tragic French experience, whose consequences are yet Gabs be resolved. Middle Ages Direct Capetians.However, the law had to be soon suspended: irrespective of the pious rhetoric about the family, Vichy was faced with the reality that the number of single women had sharply increased because of the absence of prisoners of war and the men who worked in Germany.
Vichy had wanted to restrict the employment of women, yet, female labour was needed by At first, women were involved in charity networks and in assisting prisoners of war.
By , almost a quarter of all French workers in Germany were women; by about 50, women worked there Curtis; Issue: April Foreign Affairs. Great Britain: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
France since the Revolution, texts and contexts. London: Arnold. France: The Dark Years, The Arbutus Review.
The Vichy government. The last days of the Vichy Regime. Youth Youth also played a fundamental role in the creation of the new regime.
Oldenbourg, coll. Peter Lieb et Robert O. Marc-Olivier Baruch dir. Smith dir. Les Allemands interdisent La Marseillaise en zone nord.
Perrin, , p. Veillon, O. Robert Laffont, , p. Ainsi fut fait. CAL, Paris, chap. Voir en particulier la note 42, p. Seconde Guerre mondiale. Histoire de France.
Gaule Gaule romaine Francs. Droit constitutionnel en France. Chronologies de la France. Vichy also enacted racial laws in its territories in North Africa.
Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in , and Carrel was appointed as "regent".
The Foundation was behind the 16 December Act mandating the " prenuptial certificate ", which required all couples seeking marriage to submit to a biological examination, to ensure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular with regard to sexually transmitted diseases STDs and "life hygiene".
The foundation, which after the war became the INED demographics institute, employed researchers from the summer of to the end of the autumn [ when?
It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs, roughly one franc per inhabitant: a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources.
Since the early s, Carrel had advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of its "inferior stock" [ citation needed ] , endorsing the scientific racism discourse.
The German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal.
The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous. The conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to ensure order.
Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses.
A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts. Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organised by Jean Coutrot , the " Entretiens de Pontigny ".
In the department of the Seine , encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs, nearly , persons, unaware of the upcoming danger and assisted by the police, presented themselves at police stations in accordance with the military order.
The registered information was then centralised by the French police, who constructed, under the direction of inspector Tulard, a central filing system.
According to the Dannecker report , "this filing system is subdivided into files alphabetically classed, Jewish with French nationality and foreign Jewish having files of different colours, and the files were also classed, according to profession, nationality and street [of residency]".
They were used by the Gestapo on various raids, among them the August raid in the 11th arrondissement of Paris, which resulted in 3, foreign and 1, French Jews being interned in various camps, including Drancy.
On 3 October , the Vichy government voluntarily promulgated the first Statute on Jews , which created a special underclass of French Jewish citizens, and enforced, for the first time in France, racial segregation.
The police oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting in February They also enforced requirements that Jews not appear in public places and ride only on the last car of the Parisian metro.
All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to Auschwitz and other camps. The police arrested 13, Jews, including 4, children—which the Gestapo had not asked for—and 5, women, on 16 and 17 July and imprisoned them in the Winter Velodrome in unhygienic conditions.
They were led to Drancy internment camp run by Nazi Alois Brunner and French constabulary police and crammed into box cars and shipped by rail to Auschwitz.
Most of the victims died en route due to lack of food or water. The remaining survivors were sent to the gas chambers.
This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42, French Jews sent to concentration camps in , of whom only would return after the end of the war.
Although the Nazi VT Verfügungstruppe had directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated. The French police, headed by Bousquet, arrested 7, Jews in the southern zone in August Then, on 22, 23, and 24 January , assisted by Bousquet's police force, the Germans organised a raid in Marseilles.
During the Battle of Marseilles, the French police checked the identity documents of 40, people, and the operation succeeded in sending 2, Marseillese people in the death trains, leading to the extermination camps.
The operation also encompassed the expulsion of an entire neighbourhood 30, persons in the Old Port before its destruction. It is another notable case of the French police's willful collaboration with the Nazis.
In , approximately , Jews lived in metropolitan France , less than half of them with French citizenship the others being foreign, mostly exiles from Germany during the s.
Among the , French Jews, about 30,, generally native from Central Europe, had been naturalised French during the s.
Of the total, approximately 25, French Jews and 50, foreign Jews were deported. Including the Jews who died in concentration camps in France , this would have made for a total figure of 90, Jewish deaths a quarter of the total Jewish population before the war, by his estimate.
Of the approximately 76, deported, 2, survived. The total thus reported is slightly below 77, dead somewhat less than a quarter of the Jewish population in France in During the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July , Laval ordered the deportation of children, against explicit German orders.
Paxton pointed out that if the total number of victims had not been higher, it was due to the shortage in wagons, the resistance of the civilian population, and deportation in other countries notably in Italy.
It was not for the Republic, therefore, to apologise for events that happened while it had not existed and that had been carried out by a State it did not recognise.
This position was more recently reiterated by Marine Le Pen , leader of the National Front Party , during the election campaign. Breaking its word, it handed those who were under its protection over to their executioners," he said.
Those responsible for the roundup were " policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis On 16 July , also at a ceremony at the Vel' d'Hiv site, President Emmanuel Macron denounced the country's role in the Holocaust in France and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for the roundup and subsequent deportation of 13, Jews.
Macron was even more specific than Chirac had been in stating that the Government during the War was certainly that of France.
Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie. Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's remark when he added, "I say it again here.
It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationnistes was anticommunism.
Collaboration refers to those of the French who for whatever reason collaborated with the Germans whereas collaborationism refers to those, primarily from the fascist right, who embraced the goal of a German victory as their own.
Organizations such as La Cagoule opposed the Third Republic, particularly when the left-wing Popular Front was in power. Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before Vichy authorities were strongly opposed to "modern" social trends and tried through "national regeneration" to restore behaviour more in line with traditional Catholicism.
Philip Manow argues that, "Vichy represents the authoritarian, antidemocratic solution that the French political right, in coalition with the national Church hierarchy, had sought repeatedly during the interwar period and almost put in place in Labor unions came under tight government control.
There were no elections. The independence of women was reversed, with an emphasis put on motherhood. Government agencies had to fire married women employees.
Conservative Catholics became prominent. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June , anti-Bolshevism.
Hans Petter Graver says Vichy "is notorious for its enactment of anti-Semitic laws and decrees, and these were all loyally enforced by the judiciary".
Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled labourer and small businessman. In practice, the needs of artisans for raw materials were neglected in favour of large businesses.
In the government took direct control of all production, which was synchronised with the demands of the Germans. It replaced free trade unions with compulsory state unions that dictated labour policy without regard to the voice or needs of the workers.
The centralised, bureaucratic control of the French economy was not a success, as German demands grew heavier and more unrealistic, passive resistance and inefficiencies multiplied, and Allied bombers hit the rail yards; Vichy made the first comprehensive long-range plans for the French economy.
The government had never before attempted a comprehensive overview. De Gaulle's Provisional Government in —45 quietly used the Vichy plans as a base for its own reconstruction program.
The Monnet Plan of was closely based on Vichy plans. They added compulsory and volunteer workers from occupied nations, especially in metal factories.
The shortage of volunteers led the Vichy government to pass a law in September that effectively deported workers to Germany, where they constituted fifteen percent of the labour force by August The largest number worked in the giant Krupp steel works in Essen.
Low pay, long hours, frequent bombings, and crowded air raid shelters added to the unpleasantness of poor housing, inadequate heating, limited food, and poor medical care, all compounded by harsh Nazi discipline.
They finally returned home in the summer of Civilians suffered shortages of all varieties of consumer goods. The Germans seized about twenty percent of the French food production, causing severe disruption to the French household economy.
The government answered by rationing, but German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas.
The queues lengthened in front of shops. Some people—including German soldiers—benefited from the black market, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices.
Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation.
Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common. These activities were strictly forbidden, and thus carried the risk of confiscation and fines.
Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival.
The official ration provided starvation level diets of one thousand thirteen or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.
The two million French soldiers held as POWs and forced labourers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat but the anxieties of separation for their , wives were high.
The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families. Meanwhile, the Vichy regime promoted a highly traditional model of female roles.
It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration. It used propaganda, women's organisations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education.
It introduced family allowances and opposed birth control and abortion. Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food was short as well as most necessities.
Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women. Family allowances that had begun in the s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children.
In the birth rate started to rise, and by it was higher than it had been for a century. On the other side women of the Resistance, many of whom were associated with combat groups linked to the French Communist Party PCF , broke the gender barrier by fighting side by side with men.
After the war, their services were ignored, but France did give women the vote in Hitler ordered Case Anton to occupy Corsica and then the rest of the unoccupied southern zone in immediate reaction to the landing of the Allies in North Africa Operation Torch on 8 November Following the conclusion of the operation on 12 November, Vichy's remaining military forces were disbanded.
Vichy continued to exercise its remaining jurisdiction over almost all of metropolitan France, with the residual power devolved into the hands of Laval, until the gradual collapse of the regime following the Allied invasion in June On 7 September , following the Allied invasion of France, the remainders of the Vichy government cabinet fled to Germany and established a puppet government in exile in the so-called Sigmaringen enclave.
That rump government finally fell when the city was taken by the Allied French army in April Part of the residual legitimacy of the Vichy regime resulted from the continued ambivalence of U.
Darlan was neutralised within 15 hours by a strong French resistance force. De Gaulle had not even been informed of the landing in North Africa.
Before that, the first return of democracy to Metropolitan France since had occurred with the declaration of the Free Republic of Vercors on 3 July , at the behest of the Free French government —but that act of resistance was quashed by an overwhelming German attack by the end of July.
Under Darnand and his sub-commanders, such as Paul Touvier and Jacques de Bernonville , the Milice was responsible for helping the German forces and police in the repression of the French Resistance and Maquis.
On 21 April General de Lattre ordered his forces to take Sigmaringen. The end came within days. Other members escaped to Italy or Spain. The Vichy regime was no more.
The first action of that government was to re-establish republican legality throughout metropolitan France. The provisional government considered the Vichy government to have been unconstitutional and all its actions therefore without legitimate authority.
All "constitutional acts, legislative or regulatory" taken by the Vichy government, as well as decrees taken to implement them, were declared null and void by the Order of 9 August Inasmuch as blanket rescission of all acts taken by Vichy i.
Many acts were explicitly repealed, including all acts that Vichy had called "constitutional acts", all acts that discriminated against Jews, all acts related to so-called "secret societies" e.
The provisional government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime, through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected not later than After the liberation, France was swept for a short period with a wave of executions of Collaborationists.
Women who were suspected of having romantic liaisons with Germans, or more often [ citation needed ] of being prostitutes who had entertained German customers, were publicly humiliated by having their heads shaved.
Those who had engaged in the black market were also stigmatised as "war profiteers" profiteurs de guerre , and popularly called "BOF" Beurre Oeuf Fromage , or Butter Eggs Cheese, because of the products sold at outrageous prices during the Occupation.
Many convicted Collaborationists were then given amnesty under the Fourth Republic — He was convicted and sentenced to death by firing squad, but Charles de Gaulle commuted the sentence to life imprisonment.
In the police, some collaborators soon resumed official responsibilities. This continuity of the administration was pointed out, [ citation needed ] in particular concerning the events of the Paris massacre of , executed under the orders of head of the Parisian police Maurice Papon when Charles de Gaulle was head of state.
Papon was tried and convicted for crimes against humanity in Some of the more prominent officers were executed, while the rank-and-file were given prison terms; some of them were given the option of doing time in Indochina —54 with the Foreign Legion instead of prison.
Among artists, singer Tino Rossi was detained in Fresnes prison , where, according to Combat newspaper, prison guards asked him for autographs.
Pierre Benoit and Arletty were also detained. The writer and Jewish internee Robert Aron estimated the popular executions to a number of 40, in This surprised de Gaulle, who estimated the number to be around 10,, which is also the figure accepted today by mainstream historians.
Approximately 9, of these 10, refer to summary executions in the whole of the country, which occurred during battle.
Some imply that France did too little to deal with collaborators at this stage, by selectively pointing out that in absolute value numbers , there were fewer legal executions in France than in its smaller neighbour Belgium, and fewer internments than in Norway or the Netherlands [ citation needed ] , but the situation in Belgium was not comparable as it mixed collaboration with elements of a war of secession: The invasion prompted the Flemish population to generally side with the Germans in the hope of gaining national recognition, and relative to national population a much higher proportion of Belgians than French thus ended up collaborating with the Nazis or volunteering to fight alongside them; [] [] The Walloon population in turn led massive anti-Flemish retribution after the war, some of which, such as the execution of Irma Swertvaeger Laplasse , remained controversial.
The proportion of collaborators was also higher in Norway, and collaboration occurred on a larger scale in the Netherlands as in Flanders based partly on linguistic and cultural commonality with Germany.
The internments in Norway and Netherlands, meanwhile, were highly temporary and were rather indiscriminate; there was a brief internment peak in these countries as internment was used partly for the purpose of separating Collaborationists from non-Collaborationists.
Bousquet and Leguay were both convicted for their responsibilities in the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July Among others, Nazi hunters Serge and Beate Klarsfeld spent part of their post-war effort trying to bring them before the courts.
A fair number of collaborationists then joined the OAS terrorist movement during the Algerian War — Jacques de Bernonville escaped to Quebec, then Brazil.
Maurice Papon was likewise convicted in , released three years later due to ill health, and died in Until Jacques Chirac 's presidency, the official point of view of the French government was that the Vichy regime was an illegal government distinct from the French Republic, established by traitors under foreign influence.
While the criminal behaviour of Vichy France was consistently acknowledged, this point of view denied any responsibility of the state of France, alleging that acts committed between and were unconstitutional acts devoid of legitimacy.
In later years, de Gaulle's position was reiterated by president Mitterrand. The Republic had nothing to do with this. I do not believe France is responsible," he said in September The first President to accept responsibility for the arrest and deportation of Jews from France was Jacques Chirac, in a 16 July speech.
The July Vel' d'Hiv Roundup is a tragic example of how the French police did the Nazi work, going even further than what military orders demanded by sending children to Drancy internment camp, last stop before the extermination camps.
President Macron's statement on 16 July was even more specific, stating clearly that the Vichy regime was certainly the French State during WW II, and played a role in the Holocaust.
Earlier that year, speeches made by Marine Le Pen had made the headlines by claiming that the Vichy Government was "not France. As historian Henry Rousso has put it in The Vichy Syndrome , Vichy and the state collaboration of France remains a "past that doesn't pass away".
Historiographical debates are still, today, passionate, opposing conflictual views on the nature and legitimacy of Vichy's collaborationism with Germany in the implementation of the Holocaust.
Three main periods have been distinguished in the historiography of Vichy: first the Gaullist period, which aimed at national reconciliation and unity under the figure of Charles de Gaulle, who conceived himself above political parties and divisions; then the s, with Marcel Ophüls 's film The Sorrow and the Pity ; finally the s, with the trial of Maurice Papon , civil servant in Bordeaux in charge of the "Jewish Questions" during the war, who was convicted after a very long trial — for crimes against humanity.
The trial of Papon did not only concern an individual itinerary, but the French administration's collective responsibility in the deportation of the Jews.
Critics contend that this itinerary, shared by others although few had such public roles , demonstrates France's collective amnesia, while others point out that the perception of the war and of the state collaboration has evolved during these years.
Papon's career was considered more scandalous as he had been responsible, during his function as prefect of police of Paris, for the Paris massacre of Algerians during the war, and was forced to resign from this position after the "disappearance", in Paris in , of the Moroccan anti-colonialist leader Mehdi Ben Barka.
While it is certain that the Vichy government and a large number of its high administration collaborated in the implementation of the Holocaust, the exact level of such co-operation is still debated.
Compared with the Jewish communities established in other countries invaded by Germany, French Jews suffered proportionately lighter losses see Jewish death toll section above ; although, starting in , repression and deportations struck French Jews as well as foreign Jews.
One of these rules, for example, stated that:. The contractors shall make the following statements: they are of French nationality, are not Jewish, nor married to Jewish in the sense of the laws and ordinances in force [under Vichy, ed.
Thus, even if the tenants or coowners had signed or otherwise agreed to these rules after , any such agreement would be null and void caduque under French law, as were the rules.
Rewriting or eliminating the obsolete rules would have had to be done at the occupants' expense, including notary fees of to EUR per building.
Munholland reports a widespread consensus among historians regarding the authoritarian character of the Vichy regime and its:.
Although this claim is rejected by the rest of the French population and by the state itself, another myth remains more widespread than this one.
This other myth refers to the alleged "protection" by Vichy of French Jews by "accepting" to collaborate in the deportation — and, ultimately, in the extermination — of foreign Jews.
This argument has been rejected by several historians who are specialists of the subject, among them US historian Robert Paxton , who is widely recognised, and historian of the French police Maurice Rajsfus.
Both were called on as experts during the Papon trial in the s. Robert Paxton thus declared, before the court, on 31 October , that "Vichy took initiatives The armistice allowed it a breathing space.
After naming the alleged causes of the defeat "democracy, parliamentarism, cosmopolitanism, the left wing, foreigners, Jews, From then on, Jewish people were considered "second-zone citizens [] ".
Internationally, France "believed the war to be finished". Thus, by July , Vichy was eagerly negotiating with the German authorities in an attempt to gain a place for France in the Third Reich's "New Order".
But "Hitler never forgot the defeat. He always said no. It even, at first, opposed German plans. Their idea was not to make of France an antisemitic country.
On the contrary, they wanted to send there the Jews that they expelled" from the Reich. The historic change came in —, with the pending German defeat on the Eastern Front.
The war then became "total", and in August , Hitler decided on the "global extermination of all European Jews". This new policy was officially formulated during the January Wannsee Conference , and implemented in all European occupied countries by spring France, praising itself for having remained an independent state as opposed to other occupied countries "decided to cooperate.
This is the second Vichy. They always complained about the lack of staff. Although the American historian recognised during the trial that the "civil behavior of certain individuals" had permitted many Jews to escape deportation, he stated that:.
The French state, itself, participated in the policy of extermination of the Jews How can one claim the reverse when such technical and administrative resources were made available to them?
Pointing to the French police's registering of Jews, as well as Laval's decision, taken completely autonomously in August , to deport children along with their parents, Paxton added:.
Contrary to preconceived ideas, Vichy did not sacrifice foreign Jews in the hope of protecting French Jews. At the hierarchy summit, it knew, from the start, that the deportation of French Jews was unavoidable.
Paxton then referred to the case of Italy, where deportation of Jewish people had started only after the German occupation.
Italy surrendered to the Allies in mid but was subsequently invaded by Germany. Fighting continued there through In particular, in Nice, "Italians had protected the Jews.
And the French authorities complained about it to the Germans. More recent work by the historian Susan Zuccotti finds that, in general, the Vichy government facilitated the deportation of foreign Jews rather than French ones, until at least Vichy officials [had] hoped to deport foreign Jews throughout France in order to ease pressure on native Jews.
Pierre Laval himself expressed the official Vichy position In the early months of , the terror [Adam] Munz and [Alfred] Feldman described in German-occupied France was still experienced by foreign Jews like themselves.
It is difficult to know exactly how many French Jews were arrested, usually for specific or alleged offences, but on 21 January , Helmut Knochen informed Eichmann in Berlin that there were 2, French citizens among the 3, prisoners at Drancy.
Many had been at Drancy for several months. They had not been deported because, until January , there had usually been enough foreigners and their children to fill the forty-three trains that had carried about 41, people to the east By January , foreign Jews were increasingly aware of the danger and difficult to find.
Nazi pressure for the arrest of French Jews and the deportation of those already at Drancy increased accordingly. Thus, when Knochen reported that there were 2, French citizens among the 3, prisoners at Drancy on 21 January , he also asked Eichmann for permission to deport them.
Röthke also wanted to empty Drancy in order to refill it. Despite Vichy officials' past disapproval and Eichmann's own prior discouragement of such a step, permission for the deportation of the French Jews at Drancy, except for those in mixed marriages , was granted from Berlin on 25 January.
Deportations from France did not start until summer , several months after mass deportation from other countries started.
More Jews lived in France at the end of the Vichy regime than had approximately ten years earlier. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Vichy disambiguation.
German military occupation zone. French protectorates. The gradual loss of all Vichy territory to Free France and the Allied powers.
Client state of Germany — Puppet state of Germany — Government-in-exile — Vichy de facto Paris a de jure.
Paris remained the formal capital of the French State, although the Vichy government never operated from there. Although the French Republic's institutions were officially maintained, the word "Republic" never occurred in any official document of the Vichy government.
Part of a series on the. Early Middle Ages. Middle Ages. Direct Capetians — Valois — Early modern. Long 19th century. This section needs additional citations for verification.
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Vif échange entre Eric Zemmour et Léa Salamé au sujet de Vichy (2nde Guerre Mondiale) #ONPC While this debate continued, the government was forced to relocate several times, finally reaching Bordeaux, in order to avoid capture by advancing German Deutsche Auswanderer. They always complained about the lack of staff. Paxton trans. Darlan was neutralised within 15 hours by a strong French resistance force. At the hierarchy summit, it knew, from the start, that the deportation of French Jews was unavoidable. Oxford University Press. New Hawaii Five O Steve Mcgarrett University Press. This is Bad Oeynhausen Gop second Vichy. Die Vichy-Regierung in Frankreich | Nach der Eroberung Frankreichs wird eine von Deutschland abhängig und arbeitete eng mit dem NS-Regime zusammen. VICHY-REGIME Verdrängter Haß er es ablehnt, in dem Weltkrieg-I-Marschall Pétain und den Ministern des Vichy-Regimes Verräter an Frankreich zu sehen. Vichy-Regime. Die „Vichy-Regierung“ hatte eine Sonderstellung unter den von Nazideutschland besetzten Ländern: Die im zentralfranzösischen Vichy.
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Das Vichy-Regime: Die Nazi-Kollaborateure Mit dem Absenden des Kontaktformulars erkläre ich mich mit der Verarbeitung einverstanden. Feuchtgebiete 2 die Wehrmacht warb eifrig für die Französische Jaschka Lämmert im Kampf gegen den Bolschewismus. Straff organisiert war die zentrale Wirtschaftsplanung. Viele Juden, die kurz zuvor noch nach Frankreich geflohen waren, sahen sich jetzt schon wieder der Angst und dem Terror ausgesetzt. Die Gegenleistungen der Besatzungsmacht waren eher begrenzt, die Kosten der Besatzung stiegen vielmehr bis zuletzt kontinuierlich an. Namensräume Artikel Diskussion. Natürlich jederzeit abbestellbar. Zum Inhalt springen. Kappa KappaThree main arguments are put forward:. Julian T. Jackson wrote that "There seems little doubt, therefore, that at the beginning Vichy was both legal and legitimate.
According to Jackson, de Gaulle's Free French acknowledged the weakness of its case against Vichy's legality by citing multiple dates 16 June, 23 June and 10 July for the start of Vichy's illegitimate rule, implying that at least for some period of time, Vichy was not yet illegitimate.
Partisans of Vichy point out that the grant of governmental powers was voted by the two chambers of the Third Republic the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies , in conformity with the law.
The argument concerning the abrogation of legal procedure is based on the absence and non-voluntary abstention of representatives of the people — the 27 on board the Massilia , and an additional 92 deputies and 57 senators, some of whom were in Vichy, but not present for the vote.
In total, the parliament was composed of members, Deputies and Senators. One Senator and 26 Deputies were on the Massilia. One Senator did not vote; 8 Senators and 12 Deputies voluntarily abstained; 57 Senators and 92 Deputies involuntarily abstained.
Thus, out of a total of Deputies, only voted; and out of a total of Senators, only voted. This constitution must guarantee the rights of labor, of family and of the homeland.
It will be ratified by the nation and applied by the assemblies which it has created. Accordingly, his government soon began taking on authoritarian characteristics.
Democratic liberties and guarantees were immediately suspended. Elective bodies were replaced by nominated ones. The "municipalities" and the departmental commissions were thus placed under the authority of the administration and of the prefects nominated by and dependent on the executive power.
In January the National Council Conseil National , composed of notables from the countryside and the provinces, was instituted under the same conditions.
During the war, Vichy France conducted military actions against armed incursions from Axis and Allied belligerents, an example of armed neutrality.
The most important such action was the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon on 27 November , preventing its capture by the Axis.
Leahy to France as American ambassador. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull hoped to use American influence to encourage those elements in the Vichy government opposed to military collaboration with Germany.
The Americans also hoped to encourage Vichy to resist German war demands, such as for air bases in French-mandated Syria or to move war supplies through French territories in North Africa.
The essential American position was that France should take no action not explicitly required by the Armistice terms that could adversely affect Allied efforts in the war.
President Roosevelt disliked Charles de Gaulle, whom he regarded as an "apprentice dictator". This first choice having failed, they turned to Henri Giraud shortly before the landing in North Africa on 8 November US General Mark W.
Clark of the combined Allied command made Admiral Darlan sign on 22 November a treaty putting "North Africa at the disposition of the Americans" and making France "a vassal country".
After the assassination of Darlan on 24 December , Washington turned again towards Henri Giraud, to whom had rallied Maurice Couve de Murville , who had financial responsibilities in Vichy, and Lemaigre-Dubreuil , a former member of La Cagoule and entrepreneur, as well as Alfred Pose , general director of the Banque nationale pour le commerce et l'industrie National Bank for Trade and Industry.
The Soviet Union maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy government until 30 June Due to British requests and the sensitivities of its French Canadian population, Canada maintained full diplomatic relations with the Vichy regime until the beginning of November and Case Anton — the complete occupation of Vichy France by the Nazis.
Britain feared that the French naval fleet could end up in German hands and be used against its own naval forces, which were so vital to maintaining North Atlantic shipping and communications.
Under the armistice, France had been allowed to retain the French Navy , the Marine Nationale , under strict conditions.
Vichy pledged that the fleet would never fall into the hands of Germany, but refused to send the fleet beyond Germany's reach by sending it to Britain or to faraway territories of the French empire such as the West Indies.
Shortly after the Armistice 22 June , Britain conducted the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir , killing 1, French military personnel, and Vichy severed diplomatic relations with Britain.
The isolated colonial administration was cut off from outside help and outside supplies. After negotiations with Japan, the French allowed the Japanese to set up military bases in Indochina.
In October , the military forces of Thailand attacked across the border with Indochina and launched the Franco-Thai War. Although the French won an important naval victory over the Thais, Japan forced the French to accept Japanese mediation of a peace treaty that returned the disputed territory to Thai control.
Initially, Winston Churchill was ambivalent about de Gaulle, and Churchill severed diplomatic ties with Vichy only when it became clear that the Vichy government would not join the Allies.
Until , France possessed four small, non-contiguous but politically united colonies across India, the largest being Pondicherry in Southeast India.
Free French forces from that area and others participated in the Western Desert campaign, although news of the death of French-Indian soldiers caused some disturbances in Pondicherry.
They then served as bases for the Allied effort in the Pacific and contributed troops to the Free French Forces.
Following the Appeal of 18 June , debate arose among the population of French Polynesia. A referendum was organised on 2 September in Tahiti and Moorea , with outlying islands reporting agreement in the following days.
The vote was to 18 in favour of joining the Free French side. Troops from French Polynesia and New Caledonia formed a Bataillon du Pacifique in ; became part of the 1st Free French Division in , distinguishing themselves during the Battle of Bir Hakeim and subsequently combining with another unit to form the Bataillon d'infanterie de marine et du Pacifique ; fought in the Italian Campaign , distinguishing themselves at the Garigliano during the Battle of Monte Cassino and on to Tuscany ; and participated in the Provence landings and onwards to the liberation of France.
The situation stagnated for a long while, due to the remoteness of the islands and because no overseas ship visited the islands for 17 months after January This allowed American forces to build an airbase and seaplane base on Wallis Navy that served the Allied Pacific operations.
A Vichy France plan to have Western Union build powerful transmitters on Saint Pierre and Miquelon in to enable private trans Atlantic communications was blocked following pressure by Roosevelt, then on 24 December Free French forces on three corvettes, supported by a submarine landed and seized control of Saint Pierre and Miquelon on orders from Charles de Gaulle without reference to any of the Allied commanders.
French Guiana on the northern coast of South America, removed its Vichy supporting government on 22 March , [73] shortly after eight allied ships were sunk by a German submarine off the coast of Guiana, [74] and the arrival of American troops by air on 20 March.
The Island was blockaded by the British navy until an agreement was reached to immobilise French ships in port. The British used the gold as collateral for Lend-Lease facilities from the USA, on the basis it could be "acquired" at any time if needed.
Guadeloupe in the French West Indies also changed allegiance in after Admiral Georges Robert ordered police to fire on protestors, [75] before he fled back to Europe.
They were joined by the French mandate of Cameroun on 27 August One colony in French Equatorial Africa , Gabon , had to be occupied by military force between 27 October and 12 November After attempts to encourage them to join the Allies were rebuffed by the defenders, a sharp fight erupted between Vichy and Allied forces.
Even worse from a strategic point of view, bombers of the Vichy French Air Force based in North Africa began bombing the British base at Gibraltar in response to the attack on Dakar.
Shaken by the resolute Vichy defence, and not wanting to further escalate the conflict, British and Free French forces withdrew on 25 September, bringing the battle to an end.
Gabon , which was the only territory of French Equatorial Africa that was unwilling to join the Free French Forces, fell into allied hands on 12 November , after the capital Libreville was bombed and captured.
The final Vichy troops in Gabon surrendered without any military confrontation with the Allies at Port-Gentil.
The capture of Gabon by the Allies was crucial to ensure that the entire French Equatorial Africa was out of Axis reach. The governor of French Somaliland now Djibouti , Brigadier-General Paul Legentilhomme , had a garrison of seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry, three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of the camel corps and an assortment of aircraft.
After visiting from 8—13 January , Wavell decided that Legentilhomme would command the military forces in both Somalilands should war with Italy come.
In March , the British enforcement of a strict contraband regime to prevent supplies being passed on to the Italians, lost its point after the conquest of the AOI.
The British changed policy, with encouragement from the Free French, to "rally French Somaliland to the Allied cause without bloodshed".
The Free French were to arrange a voluntary ralliement by propaganda Operation Marie and the British were to blockade the colony. Wavell considered that if British pressure was applied, a rally would appear to have been coerced.
Wavell preferred to let the propaganda continue and provided a small amount of supplies under strict control. When the policy had no effect, Wavell suggested negotiations with the Vichy governor Louis Nouailhetas, to use the port and railway.
The suggestion was accepted by the British government but because of the concessions granted to the Vichy regime in Syria, proposals were made to invade the colony instead.
In June, Nouailhetas was given an ultimatum, the blockade was tightened and the Italian garrison at Assab was defeated by an operation from Aden.
For six months, Nouailhetas remained willing to grant concessions over the port and railway but would not tolerate Free French interference.
In October, the blockade was reviewed, but the beginning of the war with Japan in December led to all but two blockade ships being withdrawn.
On 2 January , the Vichy government offered the use of the port and railway, subject to the lifting of the blockade but the British refused and ended the blockade unilaterally in March.
The next flashpoint between Britain and Vichy France came when a revolt in Iraq was put down by British forces in June That highlighted Syria as a threat to British interests in the Middle East.
This was known as the Syria-Lebanon campaign or Operation Exporter. The additional participation of Free French forces in the Syrian operation was controversial within Allied circles.
It raised the prospect of Frenchmen shooting at Frenchmen, raising fears of a civil war. Additionally, it was believed that the Free French were widely reviled within Vichy military circles, and that Vichy forces in Syria were less likely to resist the British if they were not accompanied by elements of the Free French.
Nevertheless, de Gaulle convinced Churchill to allow his forces to participate, although de Gaulle was forced to agree to a joint British and Free French proclamation promising that Syria and Lebanon would become fully independent at the end of the war.
From 5 May to 6 November , British and Commonwealth forces conducted Operation Ironclad, known as the Battle of Madagascar : the seizure of the large, Vichy French-controlled island of Madagascar , which the British feared Japanese forces might use as a base to disrupt trade and communications in the Indian Ocean.
The long-term goal was to clear German and Italian forces from North Africa, enhance naval control of the Mediterranean, and prepare for an invasion of Italy in The Vichy forces initially resisted, killing Allied forces and wounding Vichy Admiral Darlan initiated co-operation with the Allies.
He ordered Vichy forces there to cease resisting and co-operate with the Allies, and they did so. Darlan was released, and U. General Dwight D.
After Darlan signed an armistice with the Allies and took power in North Africa, Germany violated the armistice with France and invaded Vichy France on 10 November operation code-named Case Anton , triggering the scuttling of the French fleet in Toulon.
Henri Giraud arrived in Algiers on 10 November , and agreed to subordinate himself to Admiral Darlan as the French Africa army commander.
Even though Darlan was now in the Allied camp, he maintained the repressive Vichy system in North Africa, including concentration camps in southern Algeria and racist laws.
Detainees were also forced to work on the Trans-Saharan Railway. Jewish goods were "aryanized" i. Numerous Jewish children were prohibited from going to school, something which not even Vichy had implemented in metropolitan France.
Although de La Chapelle had been a member of the resistance group led by Henri d'Astier de La Vigerie , it is believed he was acting as an individual.
This occurred through a series of consultations between Giraud and de Gaulle. De Gaulle wanted to pursue a political position in France and agreed to have Giraud as commander-in-chief, as the more qualified military person of the two.
After difficult negotiations, Giraud agreed to suppress the racist laws, and to liberate Vichy prisoners from the South Algerian concentration camps.
The Cremieux decree , which granted French citizenship to Jews in Algeria and which had been repealed by Vichy, was immediately restored by General de Gaulle.
Giraud took part in the Casablanca conference , with Roosevelt, Churchill, and de Gaulle, in January The Allies discussed their general strategy for the war, and recognised joint leadership of North Africa by Giraud and de Gaulle.
Democratic rule for the European population was restored in French Algeria , and the Communists and Jews liberated from the concentration camps.
At the end of April Pierre Gazagne , secretary of the general government headed by Yves Chataigneau , took advantage of his absence to exile anti-imperialist leader Messali Hadj and arrest the leaders of his party, the Algerian People's Party PPA.
Historians distinguish between state collaboration followed by the Vichy regime, and "collaborationists", who were private French citizens eager to collaborate with Germany and who pushed towards a radicalisation of the regime.
Organized by Pierre Laval, a strong proponent of collaboration, the interview and the handshake were photographed and exploited by Nazi propaganda to gain the support of the civilian population.
The sincere desire to collaborate did not stop the Vichy government from organising the arrest and even sometimes the execution of German spies entering the Vichy zone.
The composition and policies of the Vichy cabinet were mixed. Others, like Joseph Darnand , were strong anti-Semites and overt Nazi sympathizers. On the other hand, technocrats such as Jean Bichelonne and engineers from the Groupe X-Crise used their position to push various state, administrative, and economic reforms.
These reforms have been cited as evidence of a continuity of the French administration before and after the war.
Many of these civil servants and the reforms they advocated were retained after the war. Just as the necessities of a war economy during the First World War had pushed forward state measures to reorganise the economy of France against the prevailing classical liberal theories — structures retained after the Treaty of Versailles — reforms adopted during World War II were kept and extended.
An example of such continuities is the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems by Alexis Carrel , a renowned physician who also supported eugenics.
A national paramilitary police force, the GMR was occasionally used in actions against the French Resistance , but its main purpose was to enforce Vichy authority through intimidation and repression of the civilian population.
Germany interfered little in internal French affairs for the first two years after the armistice, as long as public order was maintained.
Inspired by Charles Maurras 's conception of the "Anti-France" which he defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons, and foreigners" , Vichy persecuted these supposed enemies.
In July , Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing naturalisations granted since the reform of the nationality law.
Between June and August , 15, persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalised. The Internment camps in France inaugurated by the Third Republic were immediately put to new use, ultimately becoming transit camps for the implementation of the Holocaust and the extermination of all undesirables, including the Romani people who refer to the extermination of the Romani as Porrajmos.
A Vichy law of 4 October authorised internments of foreign Jews on the sole basis of a prefectoral order , [90] and the first raids took place in May The Third Republic had first opened concentration camps during World War I for the internment of enemy aliens and later used them for other purposes.
Camp Gurs , for example, had been set up in southwestern France after the fall of Catalonia , in the first months of , during the Spanish Civil War — , to receive the Republican refugees, including Brigadists from all nations, fleeing the Francoists.
Drancy internment camp was founded in for this use; it later became the central transit camp through which all deportees passed on their way to concentration and extermination camps in the Third Reich and Eastern Europe.
When the Phoney War started with France's declaration of war against Germany on 3 September , these camps were used to intern enemy aliens. These included German Jews and anti-fascists , but any German citizen or other Axis national could also be interned in Camp Gurs and others.
As the Wehrmacht advanced into Northern France, common prisoners evacuated from prisons were also interned in these camps. Camp Gurs received its first contingent of political prisoners in June It included left-wing activists communists, anarchists , trade-unionists, anti-militarists and pacifists , as well as French fascists who supported Italy and Germany.
Besides the political prisoners already detained there, Gurs was then used to intern foreign Jews, stateless persons , Romani, homosexuals, and prostitutes.
Vichy opened its first internment camp in the northern zone on 5 October , in Aincourt , in the Seine-et-Oise department, which it quickly filled with PCF members.
Besides the concentration camps opened by Vichy, the Germans also opened some Ilags Internierungslager for the detention of enemy aliens on French territory; in Alsace, which was under the direct administration of the Reich, they opened the Natzweiler camp , the only concentration camp created by the Nazis on French territory.
Natzweiler included a gas chamber , which was used to exterminate at least 86 detainees mostly Jewish with the aim of obtaining a collection of undamaged skeletons for the use of Nazi professor August Hirt.
The Vichy government took a number of racially motivated measures. Vichy also enacted racial laws in its territories in North Africa.
Charged with the "study, in all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities", the Foundation was created by decree of the collaborationist Vichy regime in , and Carrel was appointed as "regent".
The Foundation was behind the 16 December Act mandating the " prenuptial certificate ", which required all couples seeking marriage to submit to a biological examination, to ensure the "good health" of the spouses, in particular with regard to sexually transmitted diseases STDs and "life hygiene".
The foundation, which after the war became the INED demographics institute, employed researchers from the summer of to the end of the autumn [ when?
It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs, roughly one franc per inhabitant: a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation's resources.
Since the early s, Carrel had advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of its "inferior stock" [ citation needed ] , endorsing the scientific racism discourse.
The German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal.
The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous. The conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to ensure order.
Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses.
A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts. Alexis Carrel had also taken an active part to a symposium in Pontigny organised by Jean Coutrot , the " Entretiens de Pontigny ".
In the department of the Seine , encompassing Paris and its immediate suburbs, nearly , persons, unaware of the upcoming danger and assisted by the police, presented themselves at police stations in accordance with the military order.
The registered information was then centralised by the French police, who constructed, under the direction of inspector Tulard, a central filing system.
According to the Dannecker report , "this filing system is subdivided into files alphabetically classed, Jewish with French nationality and foreign Jewish having files of different colours, and the files were also classed, according to profession, nationality and street [of residency]".
They were used by the Gestapo on various raids, among them the August raid in the 11th arrondissement of Paris, which resulted in 3, foreign and 1, French Jews being interned in various camps, including Drancy.
On 3 October , the Vichy government voluntarily promulgated the first Statute on Jews , which created a special underclass of French Jewish citizens, and enforced, for the first time in France, racial segregation.
The police oversaw the confiscation of telephones and radios from Jewish homes and enforced a curfew on Jews starting in February They also enforced requirements that Jews not appear in public places and ride only on the last car of the Parisian metro.
All Jews and others "undesirables" passed through Drancy before heading to Auschwitz and other camps.
The police arrested 13, Jews, including 4, children—which the Gestapo had not asked for—and 5, women, on 16 and 17 July and imprisoned them in the Winter Velodrome in unhygienic conditions.
They were led to Drancy internment camp run by Nazi Alois Brunner and French constabulary police and crammed into box cars and shipped by rail to Auschwitz.
Most of the victims died en route due to lack of food or water. The remaining survivors were sent to the gas chambers.
This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42, French Jews sent to concentration camps in , of whom only would return after the end of the war.
Although the Nazi VT Verfügungstruppe had directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated. The French police, headed by Bousquet, arrested 7, Jews in the southern zone in August Then, on 22, 23, and 24 January , assisted by Bousquet's police force, the Germans organised a raid in Marseilles.
During the Battle of Marseilles, the French police checked the identity documents of 40, people, and the operation succeeded in sending 2, Marseillese people in the death trains, leading to the extermination camps.
The operation also encompassed the expulsion of an entire neighbourhood 30, persons in the Old Port before its destruction.
It is another notable case of the French police's willful collaboration with the Nazis. In , approximately , Jews lived in metropolitan France , less than half of them with French citizenship the others being foreign, mostly exiles from Germany during the s.
Among the , French Jews, about 30,, generally native from Central Europe, had been naturalised French during the s. Of the total, approximately 25, French Jews and 50, foreign Jews were deported.
Including the Jews who died in concentration camps in France , this would have made for a total figure of 90, Jewish deaths a quarter of the total Jewish population before the war, by his estimate.
Of the approximately 76, deported, 2, survived. The total thus reported is slightly below 77, dead somewhat less than a quarter of the Jewish population in France in During the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup of July , Laval ordered the deportation of children, against explicit German orders.
Paxton pointed out that if the total number of victims had not been higher, it was due to the shortage in wagons, the resistance of the civilian population, and deportation in other countries notably in Italy.
It was not for the Republic, therefore, to apologise for events that happened while it had not existed and that had been carried out by a State it did not recognise.
This position was more recently reiterated by Marine Le Pen , leader of the National Front Party , during the election campaign.
Breaking its word, it handed those who were under its protection over to their executioners," he said.
Those responsible for the roundup were " policemen and gendarmes, French, under the authority of their leaders [who] obeyed the demands of the Nazis On 16 July , also at a ceremony at the Vel' d'Hiv site, President Emmanuel Macron denounced the country's role in the Holocaust in France and the historical revisionism that denied France's responsibility for the roundup and subsequent deportation of 13, Jews.
Macron was even more specific than Chirac had been in stating that the Government during the War was certainly that of France.
Yes, it's convenient, but it is false. We cannot build pride upon a lie. Macron made a subtle reference to Chirac's remark when he added, "I say it again here.
It was indeed France that organized the roundup, the deportation, and thus, for almost all, death. A principal motivation and ideological foundation among collaborationnistes was anticommunism.
Collaboration refers to those of the French who for whatever reason collaborated with the Germans whereas collaborationism refers to those, primarily from the fascist right, who embraced the goal of a German victory as their own.
Organizations such as La Cagoule opposed the Third Republic, particularly when the left-wing Popular Front was in power.
Collaborationists may have influenced the Vichy government's policies, but ultra-collaborationists never comprised the majority of the government before Vichy authorities were strongly opposed to "modern" social trends and tried through "national regeneration" to restore behaviour more in line with traditional Catholicism.
Philip Manow argues that, "Vichy represents the authoritarian, antidemocratic solution that the French political right, in coalition with the national Church hierarchy, had sought repeatedly during the interwar period and almost put in place in Labor unions came under tight government control.
There were no elections. The independence of women was reversed, with an emphasis put on motherhood. Government agencies had to fire married women employees.
Conservative Catholics became prominent. Paris lost its avant-garde status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June , anti-Bolshevism.
Hans Petter Graver says Vichy "is notorious for its enactment of anti-Semitic laws and decrees, and these were all loyally enforced by the judiciary".
Vichy rhetoric exalted the skilled labourer and small businessman. In practice, the needs of artisans for raw materials were neglected in favour of large businesses.
In the government took direct control of all production, which was synchronised with the demands of the Germans. It replaced free trade unions with compulsory state unions that dictated labour policy without regard to the voice or needs of the workers.
The centralised, bureaucratic control of the French economy was not a success, as German demands grew heavier and more unrealistic, passive resistance and inefficiencies multiplied, and Allied bombers hit the rail yards; Vichy made the first comprehensive long-range plans for the French economy.
The government had never before attempted a comprehensive overview. De Gaulle's Provisional Government in —45 quietly used the Vichy plans as a base for its own reconstruction program.
The Monnet Plan of was closely based on Vichy plans. They added compulsory and volunteer workers from occupied nations, especially in metal factories.
The shortage of volunteers led the Vichy government to pass a law in September that effectively deported workers to Germany, where they constituted fifteen percent of the labour force by August The largest number worked in the giant Krupp steel works in Essen.
Low pay, long hours, frequent bombings, and crowded air raid shelters added to the unpleasantness of poor housing, inadequate heating, limited food, and poor medical care, all compounded by harsh Nazi discipline.
They finally returned home in the summer of Civilians suffered shortages of all varieties of consumer goods. The Germans seized about twenty percent of the French food production, causing severe disruption to the French household economy.
The government answered by rationing, but German officials set the policies and hunger prevailed, especially affecting youth in urban areas.
The queues lengthened in front of shops. Some people—including German soldiers—benefited from the black market, where food was sold without tickets at very high prices.
Farmers especially diverted meat to the black market, which meant that much less for the open market. Counterfeit food tickets were also in circulation.
Direct buying from farmers in the countryside and barter against cigarettes became common. These activities were strictly forbidden, and thus carried the risk of confiscation and fines.
Food shortages were most acute in the large cities. In the more remote country villages, clandestine slaughtering, vegetable gardens and the availability of milk products permitted better survival.
The official ration provided starvation level diets of one thousand thirteen or fewer calories a day, supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.
The two million French soldiers held as POWs and forced labourers in Germany throughout the war were not at risk of death in combat but the anxieties of separation for their , wives were high.
The government provided a modest allowance, but one in ten became prostitutes to support their families.
Meanwhile, the Vichy regime promoted a highly traditional model of female roles. It gave women a key symbolic role to carry out the national regeneration.
It used propaganda, women's organisations, and legislation to promote maternity, patriotic duty, and female submission to marriage, home, and children's education.
It introduced family allowances and opposed birth control and abortion. Conditions were very difficult for housewives, as food was short as well as most necessities.
Divorce laws were made much more stringent, and restrictions were placed on the employment of married women. Family allowances that had begun in the s were continued, and became a vital lifeline for many families; it was a monthly cash bonus for having more children.
In the birth rate started to rise, and by it was higher than it had been for a century. On the other side women of the Resistance, many of whom were associated with combat groups linked to the French Communist Party PCF , broke the gender barrier by fighting side by side with men.
After the war, their services were ignored, but France did give women the vote in Most nations recognized the Vichy government as legitimate; the U.
Meanwhile, Charles de Gaulle objected to the legitimacy of the Vichy government from London, where he began working for the Free French movement.
Was Vichy a fascist regime? The break from the Third Republic came about in part due to the shock and humiliation of being so rapidly bested by the German military, and French leaders were looking everywhere for an explanation for their defeat.
That blame fell squarely on the shoulders of Communists, socialists and Jews. Jewish people in particular had been experiencing animosity for decades, since the Dreyfus Affair of the s.
But all the foreign Jews were put into camps, they cracked down on dissent, and it was in some ways increasingly a police state.
Did the regime collaborate with Nazis out of self-preservation, or did it have its own agenda? The misconception that the Vichy Regime was the lesser of two evils endured only for the first few decades after the war.
Since then, as more archival material has come to light , historians have gradually come to see the collaborators as willing participants in the Holocaust.
Before the Nazis ever demanded the Vichy government participate in anti-Semitic policies, the French had enacted policies that removed Jews from civil service and began seizing Jewish property.
If they stayed behind, he reasoned, who would care for them? All told, the Vichy regime helped deport 75, Jewish refugees and French citizens to death camps, according to the BBC.
Did the French public support the Vichy leaders? If there had been a public referendum, the French people, in a state of confusion after the military defeat, concerned with material interests, and distressed by the German occupation of the north of the country, might well have approved of Vichy.
At one extreme there was great brutality, especially by the violently anti-Semitic paramilitary Milice, while on the hand the number of protestors and heroic resistors against Vichy and the Nazis grew larger throughout the war.
As France has slowly come to terms with its role in the Holocaust and the willing collaboration of the Vichy government, citizens have struggled with what that legacy means for them.
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He set up his capital at Vichy, a spa in the Auvergne. By then about , Jews had crossed what was known as the Demarcation Line to seek protection from Vichy in the south - only to find they were subjected to fierce discrimination along lines practised by the Germans in the north.
Jews were eventually banned from the professions, show business, teaching, the civil service and journalism. After an intense propaganda campaign, Jewish businesses were 'aryanised' by Vichy's Commission for Jewish Affairs and their property was confiscated.
More than 40, refugee Jews were held in concentration camps under French control, and 3, died of poor treatment during the winters of and The writer Arthur Koestler, who was held at Le Vernet near the Spanish frontier, said conditions were worse than in the notorious German camp, Dachau.
During anti-Semitic legislation, applicable in both zones, was tightened. French police carried out the first mass arrests in Paris in May when 3, men were interned.
Two more sweeps took place before the first deportation train provided by French state railways left for Germany under French guard on 12 March On 16 July , French police arrested 12, Jews, including 4, children and 5, women, in Paris during what became known as La Grande Rafle 'the big round-up'.
Most were temporarily interned in a sports stadium, in conditions witnessed by a Paris lawyer, Georges Wellers.
Within days, detainees were being sent to Germany in cattle-wagons, and some became the first Jews to die in the gas chambers at Auschwitz. In August , gendarmes were sent to hunt down foreign refugees.
Families were seized in their houses or captured after manhunts across the countryside. About 11, Jews were transported to Drancy in the Paris suburbs, the main transit centre for Auschwitz.
Children as young as three were separated from their mothers - gendarmes used batons and hoses - before being sent to Germany under French guard, after weeks of maltreatment.
During , officials sent 41, Jews to Germany, although the deportations came to a temporary halt when some religious leaders warned Vichy against possible public reaction.
Afterwards, arrests were carried out more discreetly. In and , the regime deported 31, people - the last train left in August , as Allied troops entered Paris.
Out of the total of 75, deportees, contained in a register drawn up by a Jewish organisation, fewer than 2, survived.
The number of dead would have been far higher if the Italian fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, had not ordered troops in France to defy German-French plans for mass round ups in Italian-occupied south-eastern France.
Thousands were smuggled into Italy after Italian generals said that 'no country can ask Italy, cradle of Christianity and law, to be associated with these Nazi acts'.
After the Italian surrender in September , arrests in the area restarted, but by then French public opinion had changed. Escape lines to Switzerland and Spain had been set up, and thousands of families risked death to shelter Jews.
Since the war, Israel has given medals to 2, French people, including several priests, in recognition of this, and of the fact that about , Jews survived in France.
Noch am Am Zwangsarbeit Arbeitserziehungslager im Deutschen Reich. November als Demo In Köln Heute auf die alliierte Landung in Nordafrika wurden die Deportationen nunmehr unter deutscher Leitung verstärkt fortgesetzt. Monaco und Nizza unter italienischer Verwaltung, dessen Besetzung von der deutschen und der Vichy-Regierung lediglich geduldet wurde. Die verunsicherten Kommunisten verhielten sich in der Folge weitgehend neutral. Auf dieser Karte siehst du Frankreich, das in Nick Night.De besetzte und unbesetzte Zone eingeteilt wurde.
